應用個體三篇論文：生育懲罰、同儕效應與性別勞參

Abstract

本研究進行了三篇實證研究，運用事件研究法、工具變數方法與行政資料評估養育子女對家庭內性別差距的影響，家戶的投資行為是否受到同儕的影響以及2008 年金融危機對勞動市場結果的影響。 第一篇利用臺灣的行政資料以及事件研究法，探討養育子女對家庭內性別差距的影響，關注勞動所得與財富的變化。運用分位迴歸分析，以檢視依家庭於生育前的所得能力或財富狀況所呈現的異質性效果。初步結果顯示，在第一胎出生後，夫妻間的勞動所得差距擴大 192 個百分點，而財富則下降 28.7 個百分點。具備較佳收入能力或財富水準的母親，生育所遭受的經濟衝擊相對較小。受教育程度較高、初產年齡較晚或總生育數較少的女性，在所得與財富上的性別差距亦相對較小。子女的到來往往促使父親增加勞動投入，而母親則因照護責任而傾向減少勞動市場參與，從而擴大性別差距。在臺灣，無論收入與財富層級高低，父親在第一胎出生後均展現出更積極的勞動市場參與，此現象凸顯華人社會的特殊性。研究亦發現部分模式可能反映文化規範，許多臺灣家庭在子女出生後，會將更多財產登記於妻子名下，作為對女性孕育與照護勞動的補償或肯認。值得注意的是，若第一胎為男嬰，該現象更為明顯，顯示臺灣社會中或許存在「重男」的偏好的存在。具體而言，第一胎為男嬰的母親，獲得不動產的機率較生女嬰者高出6%。 第二篇旨在檢驗個體投資行為是否受到同儕影響，並探討此同儕效應的異質性。我們特別關注性別，如男性與女性在同儕影響下所受程度是否不同，與階層，如資深同事是否較資淺同事更具影響力等因素。本文利用行政資料，並採用一套創新的識別策略，以估計家庭所受到的同儕效應。據我們所知，本研究為首篇區分丈夫與妻子同事對家庭投資決策影響的研究。研究結果顯示，職場同儕對家庭投資行為具有顯著影響，且妻子同事的作用強於丈夫同事。此外，資深同事對夫妻雙方皆有更大影響，凸顯了經驗與財務素養在同儕驅動的投資行為中所扮演的重要角色。 第三篇探討 2008 年金融危機對勞動市場結果的影響，並分析教育程度、性別、婚姻狀況、子女數與年齡等因素對勞動參與上的影響。研究結果顯示，受教育程度較高者顯著較不易處於無工作狀態，性別差異亦相當明顯，男性陷入無工作狀態的可能性顯著較低，而婚姻與育兒則大幅提高女性無工作的機率，反映出女性在勞動市場參與上的結構性限制。年齡較高者，特別是 50 歲以上族群，更容易退出就業。雖然原先假設金融危機對年長男性的衝擊最為顯著，但實證結果並未達統計顯著水準。有趣的是，金融危機期間女性的無工作比例反而下降，可能由於家庭財務壓力促使女性增加勞動供給，加上女性教育程度持續提升所致。整體而言，本研究凸顯金融危機的非對稱性影響，研究結果不如預期，可能原因為產異質性與觀察期間過長，掩蓋部分弱勢群體所面臨的風險。本文強調制定針對性的勞動市場政策之必要，包括提升教育機會、促進性別平等與保障收入安全。未來研究將進一步探討家庭對收入衝擊的因應機制，以及其對家庭動態的更廣泛影響。

This dissertation presents three empirical studies using event-study methods, instrumental variables, and administrative data to examine the impact of childbearing on household gender disparities, peer effects on investment behavior, and the 2008 financial crisis on labor market outcomes. Chapter 1 Using Taiwan's administrative data, our study investigates how raising children impacts gender gaps within households, focusing on labor income and wealth. We employ quantile regression to explore heterogeneous effects based on household earning capacity or wealth status before children. Preliminary findings reveal that with the birth of their first child, the husband-wife labor income gap widens by 192 percentage points, and wealth declines by 28.7 percentage points. Mothers with better earnings capability or wealth face fewer economic setbacks from childbearing than those with lower resources. Gender gaps in income and wealth are less pronounced among women with higher education, older age at first childbirth, or fewer total births. The arrival of children often motivates fathers to increase work efforts, while mothers tend to reduce their labor market participation for caregiving, thereby widening gender gaps. After the first child's birth in Taiwan, fathers across all income and wealth levels become more active in the labor market, possibly unique to Chinese communities. This study also uncovers notable patterns that may reflect underlying cultural norms. As a form of compensation or reward for the physical and emotional labor women undertake during pregnancy and childcare, many Taiwanese households increase the share of assets registered under the wife's name following the birth of a child. This practice suggests a broad societal acceptance and recognition of traditional gender roles. Interestingly, the phenomenon becomes more pronounced when the firstborn child is a son, indicating the persistence of son preference in Taiwanese society. Specifically, mothers of firstborn sons are 6% more likely to obtain real estate than mothers of firstborn daughters. Chapter 2 aims to examine whether individuals’ investment behavior is influenced by their peers and to explore the heterogeneity of these peer effects. Specifically, we investigate whether factors such as gender (e.g., males and females experiencing different levels of peer influence) or hierarchy (e.g., senior co-workers exerting greater influence than junior co-workers) shape the extent of peer effects. Using administrative data, we adopt a novel identification strategy to estimate peer effects within households. To our knowledge, this is the first study to distinguish between the influence of the husband’s and the wife’s colleagues on household investment decisions. We find that workplace peers significantly influence household investment behavior, with the wife’s colleagues exerting a stronger effect than the husband’s. Moreover, senior colleagues have a greater impact on both spouses, underscoring the importance of experience and financial sophistication in peer-driven investment dynamics. Chapter 3 analyzes the impact of the 2008 financial crisis on labor market outcomes, considering education, gender, marital status, parenthood, and age. Higher education is associated with a lower likelihood of being out of employment. Gender disparities are evident as men face lower risks while marriage and childcare increase women’s likelihood of not being employed. Older individuals, particularly those over 50, are more vulnerable. Contrary to expectations, older men were not significantly affected, while women’s non-employment declined during the crisis, likely due to financial pressures and rising education levels. These findings highlight the asymmetric effects of the crisis and suggest that industry-level heterogeneity and the extended observation window may obscure certain vulnerabilities. Future research will further examine household-level responses to income shocks and their broader implications for family dynamics.