唐代毗沙門天王信仰與圖像研究

Abstract

毗沙門天王（Vaiśravaṇa），為四大天王之一，隨佛教東傳進入中國。然隨信仰發展，毗沙門天王倏忽自四天王體系中獨立而出，並受到單獨崇奉。這一現象發展至唐代時達到高峰，毗沙門天王與社會政治、軍事局勢緊密結合，形成一脈極具時代特徵的信仰。 根據敦煌文獻顯示，早在北朝時期即已出現針對毗沙門天王獨立崇祀的現象。至唐代，中原接收來自于闐的毗沙門天王信仰與圖像，同時隨不空積極弘揚該信仰，進而使其在唐代社會廣泛流傳。毗沙門天王作為護國、護軍的神祇，既深受皇室推崇，亦廣為民間信奉。圖像方面，毗沙門天王早期多是與其他天王成組出現。甫自四天王體系脫離後，開始以單尊形式呈現，並帶有于闐式圖像特徵。隨信仰逐步擴展，圖像日益複雜化，並增添眷屬，顯示出毗沙門天王圖像發展的時代差異性。目前在中原、四川與敦煌皆有作品遺存，考察三地圖像表現，可見其有所區別。除作為禮敬對象的圖樣，又出現如天王決海、毗沙門天王赴哪吒會及行道天王圖等，以毗沙門天王為主題的敘事性作品。此類作品在敦煌地區尤為突出，呈現出唐代毗沙門天王圖像之區域特色。 本論文將以唐代毗沙門天王信仰與圖像為核心，系統化梳理毗沙門天王信仰的建構歷程，並深入考察其圖像發展脈絡。透過探討毗沙門天王圖像成立之時代背景，及影響其發展的社會與政治因素，由此進一步釐清中原、四川與敦煌三地圖像風格與信仰內容的區域差異與交互關係，說明毗沙門天王信仰如何因應各地政治局勢與社會需求而展現不同面貌。

Vaiśravaṇa, one of the Four Heavenly Kings, was introduced into China along with the eastward spread of Buddhism. Over time, Vaiśravaṇa gradually emerged from the collective system of the Four Heavenly Kings and began to be venerated independently. By the Tang dynasty, this phenomenon reached its peak, as Vaiśravaṇa became closely intertwined with social, political, and military circumstances, forming a belief system with distinct temporal characteristics. According to Dunhuang manuscripts, independent worship of Vaiśravaṇa already appeared during the Northern Dynasties. In the Tang period, the Central Plains adopted Vaiśravaṇa beliefs and iconography introduced from Khotan, while the esoteric master Amoghavajra (Bukong) actively promoted this faith, leading to its widespread dissemination throughout Tang society. As a deity of national protection and military guardianship, Vaiśravaṇa was revered by the imperial court and widely worshipped among the populace. In terms of iconography, early depictions of Vaiśravaṇa typically appeared in groups with the other Heavenly Kings. Following his separation from the Four Heavenly Kings, he began to be represented as a single figure characterized by Khotanese stylistic features. As his cult expanded, his imagery became increasingly complex, incorporating attendant figures, which highlights chronological differences in iconographic development. Surviving works from the Tang dynasty in the Central Plains, Sichuan, and Dunhuang reveal regional distinctions in form and iconography. In addition to traditional devotional representations, narrative images such as “Vaiśravaṇa Parts the Sea” (毗沙門天王決海), “Vaiśravaṇa Attends the Meeting with Nezha” (毗沙門天王赴哪吒會), and the “Vaiśravaṇa on his way across the waters” (行道天王) emerged, with such narrative themes especially prominent in Dunhuang, reflecting distinctive regional characteristics in Tang Vaiśravaṇa imagery. This thesis focuses on the belief and iconography of Vaiśravaṇa during the Tang dynasty, systematically tracing the formation of his cult and examining the evolution of his images. By examining the historical context of Vaiśravaṇa’s iconographic development and identifying the social and political factors that influenced it, this study explains the regional distinctions and exchanges in visual form and content among the Central Plains, Sichuan, and Dunhuang. It demonstrates how each region actively reshaped Vaiśravaṇa’s faith in response to its specific socio-political contexts.