東亞文化交流網絡中的明清「禁書」

Abstract

中國漢籍的越境流動是東亞史的重要課題，然而相關研究至今仍多著墨於書籍流動「之後」的影響，較少注意書籍流動的「過程」。目前明清書籍史、近代東亞文化交流史的主流敘事，皆假定書籍流播海外是極其自然的狀態。然而中國自宋代以降，官方出現越來越強烈的書籍防禁意識。當中國的書籍管制越形清晰，一系列的問題應運而生。中國書籍防禁的意識從何而來？為什麼這種管制在明代中葉才明文規定？既然中國管制的辦法俱在，外國人何以如此堅持，更且能夠突破重圍，載書歸鄉。這一組彼此緊密聯繫的設問，在正文分為四章述論。 首先是近代早期東亞官方、知識人的求書動機。本研究從學問養成、知識訓練、統治需要的角度思考，指出東亞各地各種關乎「知識」的制度設計，產生規模龐大、歷史久遠的漢籍需求。釐清這一層關係，才能理解東亞知識人何以明知中國管制書籍，卻仍執意搜求書籍的動機。 其次是近代早期中國的書禁制度的起源。嘉靖元年（1522），明朝制定針對所有外國人的書籍管制的法度，並且為清朝繼承。本研究將明清官方明文禁止外國人收買的書籍，稱作「明清禁書」。嘉靖元年之前，朝鮮、琉球使節團能夠自由出入北京的會同館，包含自由貿易書籍。在此之後，所有的朝貢國滯留北京期間，必須在會同館內貿易，而且限定移動範圍。朝鮮人從深恩厚待到牢鎖館中，肇因他們不斷與明朝民人發生糾紛。明廷有鑑於各朝貢國越演越烈的諸多糾紛，決定在嘉靖元年全面改變對外政策。 復次是明清書籍管制的內涵與效力。事實上明清官方始終維持同樣的原則，並產生一定的嚇阻效果。朝鮮人豐富的記述揭示，明清時期的會同館、鳳凰城柵門，針對外國人的書籍管制不僅具體存在，而且發揮效果，儘管結果可能不如明清官方的預期。中國書籍防禁的成效，同時可見諸日本、琉球、明代西南土司的事例。 最後是外國人如何持運禁書出境，卻安然無事。根據朝鮮人的見聞，不僅是會同館的序班、通官參與其間，上至滿洲皇族、內閣宰執，下到禮部官員，均預其事。朝鮮使節團為打點一切，耗費數量驚人的白銀。諷刺的是朝鮮並不產銀，白銀大多產自日本。當日本白銀減產，朝鮮卻因為各種考量，繼續維持漢籍需求。朝鮮蒐羅漢籍的行動，遭遇白銀不足的困境，逐漸影響到朝鮮赴京使行的人員組織，私商取代譯官，掌握使節團的金流。 梳理明清官方管制書籍輸出的政策，以及探論朝鮮人突破管制、私自取得書籍的過程，才能更準確地捕捉東亞書籍流動的真實樣態。研究者應重新估量不同類別的漢籍在東亞的「份量」，例如不再將朝鮮、日本知識人收藏《明史》視作理所當然。在明清時期的東亞地區，獲取與掌握某些知識宛如特權，承載此些知識的書籍，大多歷經險阻，越境前來。

The transboundary flow of Chinese books is an important topic in Chinese and East Asian histories. Yet the existing scholarship has often focused on impacts brought about by the flows of books, paying little attention to the “process” of such flows. For different reasons, the mainstream narratives of the history of books in late imperial China and of the history of cultural encounters in early modern East Asia have assumed that Chinese books being spread outside China was a natural development. Since the Song Dynasty, however, the Chinese authorities had nurtured an ever-increasing awareness and regulations to restrict the circulation of books. Where did this awareness come from? Why were related restrictions fully codified in the mid-Ming Dynasty? And why, in spite of restrictions, did foreigners insist and succeed in exporting books from China to their homeland? This dissertation makes use of four chapters to answer the above questions. Chapter 1 examines the motives to seek Chinese books behind East Asian intellectuals and authorities in the early modern era. It argues that the tremendous and long-term need of Chinese books among East Asian intellectuals derived from the infrastructure of knowledge in East Asia, including the nurture of scholarship, the betterment of intellectual skills, and the concern with governance. It is with this context that we may better understand why, despite that there existed prohibition of book circulation, East Asian intellectuals remained keen to exporting books from China to their homeland. Chapter 2 focuses on the policies of book prohibitions. It suggests that the Ming legal code issued in 1552 regulating the foreigner’s access to books was a milestone development. Before 1552, envoys from Chosŏn and Ryukyu could rather freely go through the hui tong guan (會同館) in Beijing and purchase Chinese books without restrictions. Yet since Chosŏn envoys often had quarrels with local people, the Ming authorities determined to change their policies toward foreigners in 1522, verdict that envoys from tributary states to Beijing could not move freely and could only trade stuffs inside the hui tong guan. Moreover, the 1522 code also made what titles were to be prohibited from selling to foreigners, understood in this dissertation as “forbidden books.” Such regulations were inherited by the Qing Dynasty, therefore shaping the structure that exerted huge impacts on the circulation of Chinese books in early modern East Asia. Chapter 3 examines the execution of policies on the regulation of books in the Ming and Qing. It points out that throughout the Ming and Qing, policies on the regulation of books remained steady and, to a certain degree, exerted deterrent effects. According to record left by Chosŏn envoy, during the Ming and Qing the hui tong guan and the frontier inspection station between Qing and Chosŏn, were effective in controlling the circulation of books, despite that such results might not meet the authorities’ expectation. Notably, efforts to regulate Chinese books did not target on Chosŏn alone but also on people from Japan, Ryukyu and the Southwestern Tusi (土司). Chapter 4 analyzes why and how foreigners could successfully export forbidden books outside China without being caught. Thanks to the China Mission Record (燕行文獻) by Chosŏn envoy, scholars nowadays have a opportunity to scrutinize the journeys of regulated books from Beijing to Seoul. The chapter demonstrates that many parties had taken parts in such journeys, including xù bān (序班), tōng guān (通官), the imperial family, Grand Secretaries, and official of Ministry of Rites. To make things go smoothly, the Chosŏn envoy had expended a considerable amount of silver produced in Japan. Since Chosŏn did not produce silver, when Japan’s silver production began to drop, Chosŏn envoy had to find a way out to continue their task of collecting Chinese books. This led to the reshuffle of the composition of the envoy, resulting in the replacement of yì guān (譯官) by private merchants who controlled the cash flow.