英殖民時期柔佛峇株巴轄的土地改制與地方頭人（1910-1941）

Abstract

19世紀東南亞各國為了開發土地，一度盛行以餉碼制度（revenue farming system）引入勞工，即與移民領袖簽訂契約，出售開墾土地的權力和鴉片的壟斷權，並以此為國家收益來源。邁入20世紀，餉碼制度的間接管理導致國家未能直接從資源獲益，促使國家轉而以直接管理的方式壟斷資源，導致餉碼制度走向沒落。本研究以一個位於馬來亞半島南端州屬柔佛（Johor）的農業縣——峇株巴轄（Batu Pahat）為例，藉由地方的視角，以1910年的土地制度改革為核心，探討餉碼制度廢除以後，地方社會如何應對與接納新秩序所帶來的轉變。 20世紀初的橡膠熱潮（rubber boom）令永久作物（permanent crop）取代輪耕（shifting cultivation）成為商業作物的主流，促成土地的商品化。為了更有效壟斷資源收益，柔佛在英國籍總顧問官主導下於1910年頒布土地法令（The Land Enactment 1910），引入名為托倫斯制（Torrens System）的土地註冊制，由英籍官員掌管的土地局掌控土地的管理權，並利用土地收益取代了餉碼收益。峇株巴轄原有的馬來人和華人地方頭人——彭古魯（Penghulu）和港主（Kangchu）因土地管理權易主，地位受到影響，到了1917年，前者被吸納為土地局僱員，後者則隨著港主制度廢除而消失。取而代之的則是城鎮的商人群體。作為小地主與國際市場之間的中間人，華人收購商壟斷了商業作物的收購、加工與出口。受惠於以出口為導向的經濟框架的蓬勃發展，他們也逐漸成為峇株巴轄華社中堅，肩負起當地華社的教育、醫療、殯葬等職責。另一邊廂，馬來地方頭人和小地主雖然也積極參與橡膠和椰子產業，卻難與華商群體抗衡。前者生計上愈來愈依賴殖民政府的薪資，最終不堪受經濟蕭條的衝擊，於1933年主動要求進一步地官僚化以換取官僚體系的福利。後者雖在申請土地上獲得優待，卻因殖民者更鼓勵他們從事收益不高的稻米行業，以及馬來小地主常見作物——椰子的種植條件未受重視，令馬來小地主難以在經營規模上取得突破。通過地方視角，本研究也凸顯了中央政策與地方行政之間的落差。峇株巴轄的馬來小地主得以在1936年柔佛馬來人保留地法令通過以前，便通過不成文規定在申請土地時獲得優先考量，並且禁止其他種族收購馬來人的土地。地方行政人手不足導致臨時佔地常態化，令土地註冊制出現紕漏，也促成1932年永平鎮的大規模非法佔地案。 總的來說，土地商品化促成的商機令小地主願意採納土地註冊制，經濟壓力則迫使地方頭人主動向新制度靠攏。農業與商業模式的轉變，促使地方社會逐漸接納與利用殖民者推動的土地改制，令土地逐漸轉型成國家直接統治的資源，推動了國家政權建設（state-making）的過程。

In the 19th century, revenue farming system were common among states in Southeast Asia for land development. The states will sign contracts with the immigrant headmen, selling permissions for land and monopolies of opium to the latter, therefore generating revenue for the states. Entering the 20th century, indirect rule by revenue farming had diluted the income of the states from their resources, encouraging the states to monopoly their resources through direct control, causing the decline of revenue farming. Using Batu Pahat, an agricultural district of Johor, a Malay State at the South end of Malay Peninsular as example, this research aims to examine the reaction and acceptance of local society towards changes brought by the new order after the elimination of revenue farming through a local standpoint, while focusing on the land system reformation in year 1910. In the early 20th century, rubber boom changed the main stream cash crop cultivation method from shifting cultivation to permanent crops and encouraged the commercialization of land. In order to monopolize revenue from resources more efficiently, Johor has introduced some policies under the influence of British General Adviser: passed The Land Enactment 1910, introduced a land registration system called “Torrens System”, controlled the land administration through land office governed by British bureaucrats, and replaced farms revenue with land revenue. In Batu Pahat, the status of local Malay headmen, Penghulus, and Chinese headmen, Kangchus, were threatened by these changes of land administration. In the year 1917, Penghulus were integrated by the land office and became its employees, while Kangchus lost their status after the abolition of Kangchu System. City merchants emerged and replaced the original local headmen. Chinese dealers, who acted as the middlemen between small-holders and international market, monopolized the collecting, processing and exporting of cash crops. Benefited from the rapid development of the framework for an export economy, they slowly became the backbone of Batu Pahat’s Chinese society and took over the responsibility for local Chinese’s education, medical and after-death services. On the other side, local Malay headmen and small-holders, although they actively participated in rubber and copra industry, were facing a hard time competing with Chinese merchants. Malay headmen relied more and more on government’s salary for livelihood, finally succumbed under the impact of economic depression, and in year 1933, requested to be further integrated into the bureaucratic system in exchange of its welfare. Malay small-holders, while receiving relatively preferential treatment in land application, were facing difficulty to expand their scale of business, owing to the facts that colonizer preferred Malays to participate in padi cultivation which only generated low income, and the cultivation condition for coconut, the common crop among Malay small-holders, were neglected. This research emphasizes the discrepancy between local administration and central policies through the local standpoint. Benefited from local unwritten rules, Batu Pahat’s Malay small-holders received preferential treatment in land application and were protected from land acquisition initiated by other races even before The Malay Reserve Enactment 1936. Lack of workforce in local administration also normalized temporary occupation of land, which enabled a loophole in land registration system, and caused the large scale of illegal land occupation in Yong Peng on the year 1932. In conclusion, benefits from the commercialization of land had encouraged small-holders to accept the land registration system, while economic pressure had compelled local headmen to lean toward the new administration system. Changes of agricultural and commercial pattern had compelled the local society to accept and utilize the land system reformation initiated by the colonizer, caused land to slowly become a resource directly governed by the state, while promoting the state-making progress.