具智力增進觀之華人青少年的脆弱易感性： 努力批評與努力本質觀的效應

Abstract

在西方文獻中，智力增進觀一向被認為是能夠促進適應性成就動機及學習行為的一項指標。然而，對於身處極度強調努力價值的華人社會之學童而言，傾向於持智力增進觀的人可能不僅認為努力能夠增進智力，同時也對於努力的價值有著高度的重視及擁護。因此，華人增進觀者可能會特別在意自己的努力程度是否令人滿意，並且可能在其努力程度受到挑戰時變得脆弱。 研究一探討了當智力增進觀者的努力程度被直接挑戰時的反應。54 位國中二年級學生，根據其在智力內隱理論問卷上的得分被分成本質觀者及增進觀者兩組。每位學生皆聆聽五個小主角經歷學業失敗、教師給予負向回饋的假想故事。其中兩個故事分別以「責備能力」與「責備努力」為回饋內容。每位學生在聽完故事後皆被要求針對故事內容回答其「自我能力感」及「自我喜愛感」受到的影響。納入性別為另一獨變項並以學業成績為共變數之三因子共變數分析的結果顯示，智力內隱裡論與回饋類型的二階交互作用效果在自我喜愛感上達顯著。得到「責備努力」回饋的智力增進觀者，其自我喜愛感的受損程度會較得到「責備能力」回饋時以及同樣得到「責備努力」回饋的智力本質觀者來得嚴重。 接著，基於長時間不斷接受努力批評或訓誡可能導致努力的特質性概念形成之假定，研究二探討了努力本質觀對於智力增進觀者在實際生活中的學習行為的調節效果。研究二假定，對華人智力增進觀者而言，一旦其同時擁有高努力本質觀，可能會面臨一方面要恪守努力之個人美德一方面又想迴避令人不滿意卻又無法改變的努力程度的這樣的衝突。為了化解此一兩難情況，他們可能會有較多的「從事其他替代性活動而不用功念書」的這樣的行為。研究二亦探討學生的年齡與學業表現對此一努力本質觀的調節效果的影響。研究 2A 及研究 2B 分別有 309 名國中一年級學生及 648 名高中一年級與二年級學生參與。所有參與者皆填寫了智力內隱理論問卷、努力本質信念問卷，以及 PALS 的學業自我設限量表。研究二亦根據題項內容是描述「從事其他替代性活動」或「未從事任何具體行動」的狀況，將 PALS 的學業自我設限量表的題目加以區分而成為兩個結果變項。在控制了性別以及學業表現之後，階層迴歸分析有以下的結果。對國中生而言，智力本質觀及努力本質觀皆能顯著預測受試者之自我設限傾向；此外，同時具有高努力本質觀的智力本質觀者亦有相對於其他人的最高的兩種自我設限行為之傾向。然而，對高中生來說，僅努力本質觀能顯著預測受試者之自我設限傾向；此外，具有高努力本質觀的智力增進觀者則有相較於持低努力本質觀的智力增進觀者及智力本質觀者的最高的「從事其他替代性活動」之傾向。儘管如此，此一努力本質觀對於智力增進觀的調節效果卻只出現在學業成績優異的高中生其「從事其他替代性活動」的行為傾向上。本研究的結果意味了當努力程度受到挑戰時，不管是來自直接的外在回饋或是內在的個人信念，皆會讓持智力增進觀的華人變得脆弱。越是浸淫在台灣的教育系統，越會展現出此一似乎是具有文化特殊性的傾向。

The Western literature often indicated that incremental view of intelligence leads to adaptive learning motivation and behaviors. However, Chinese incremental theorists may not only regard effort is useful in improving intelligence but also highly endorse the value of effort simultaneously since diligence is often regarded as an essential learning virtue in culturally Chinese societies. Consequently, they may be more concerned about whether their level of effort is satisfactory and become vulnerable when they sense their own level of effort is challenged. Study 1 investigated the response of Chinese incremental theorists when they were directly challenged about their level of diligence. Fifty-four 8th graders were divided into entity group and incremental group according to their scores on Dweck and Henderson’s Implicit Theory of Intelligence Questionnaire. They also listened to five hypothetical stories containing different types of teacher’s feedback. Two of the stories described that a same age and same sex protagonist failed in schoolwork and was blamed for lacking either ability or effort. They were then asked to imagine themselves as the protagonist and rate their perceived change in the sense of self-competence and self-liking. Two 2 × 2 × 2 ANCOVA (type of criticism × theory of intelligence × gender) with academic achievement as covariate were conducted on self-competence and self-liking. The interaction effect of “theory” by “type of criticism” was significant on the measure of self-liking. Incremental theorists’ self-liking deteriorated more after being blamed for lacking effort than for lacking ability and they were more vulnerable to effort criticism than entity theorists. Next, based on the assumption that daily exposure of effort-related evaluations and disciplines may lead to a dispositional concept of effort, Study 2 investigated the moderating effect of EVE on Chinese incremental theorists’ real-life learning behaviors. Entity View of Effort (EVE) is a belief of how much effort a person can engage is limited especially in highly effort-demanding situations. Study 2 hypothesized that those effort-endorsing Chinese incremental theorists, if are accompanied with high EVE, would face the conflict between fulfilling the personal duty of industriousness and avoiding the exposure of their unsatisfiable yet unchangeable effort level. Consequently, in order to successfully resolve the dilemma, they were expected to be more likely to occupy themselves with activities other than studying hard. In addition, Study 2 also took student’s age and academic performance level into concern. A total of 309 7th graders in Study 2A and 648 10th and 11th graders in Study 2B completed the measurements for Implicit Theory of Intelligence, Entity View of Effort (Lay & Tsai, 2005), and Academic Self-Handicapping Scale in PALS. According to the contents, describing either engagement of alternative activities or disengagement, Study 2 differentiated the six items in the Academic Self-Handicapping Scale to form the two outcome variables. After controlling for two dichotomous variables of subjects’ gender and academic performance, hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated the following results. (1) Among junior-high students, either those with entity view of intelligence or those with higher EVE had a higher self-handicapping tendency. Moreover, those entity theorists with higher EVE had the highest tendency of both types of self-handicapping behaviors than those entity theorists with lower EVE or the incremental theorists. (2) Among senior-high students, only those with higher EVE had a higher self-handicapping tendency. Moreover, those incremental theorists with higher EVE had the highest tendency of engaging in alternative activities than those incremental theorists with lower EVE or the entity theorists. However, the moderating effect of EVE on the incremental view was only significant among the students from the academically more advanced school. The present study suggests that Chinese incremental theorists are vulnerable when their own level of effort is challenged, either from direct external feedback or from internal personal belief. The more they embrace the educational system in Taiwan the more they would display this seemingly culture-specific tendency.