「身體」與「工夫」：明代儒學身體觀類型研究

Abstract

本論文名為《身體與工夫：明代儒學身體觀類型研究》。筆者在梳理明代儒學文獻的基礎上，參酌運用「理想類型」（ideal type）、「身體現象學」（phenomenology of body）、「知識考古學」（archaeology of knowledge）等理論架構，分判出明代儒學的四種主要身體觀類型。分別是：陳白沙（獻章，1428-1500）系的「主靜自然型」，王陽明（守仁，1472-1528）系的「良知學型」，王龍溪（畿，1498-1583）系的「內丹良知學型」，李卓吾（贄，1527-1602）系的「虛無苦身型」。 第一型是「主靜自然型」。在這型裡，陳白沙所體證到身體，是種與「道」相通，既靜穆卻又生意盎然的身體。在道體的照應下，白沙的身體觀中，呈現出一種「道—心—氣—形」的存有學結構。「道」的秩序即「身體」的莊嚴，這種經由身體證出的神聖之奧，白沙稱為「端倪」或「善端」，是道德的起源與實踐依據。借用內丹學等說，白沙架構出一套儒家式的身體修煉法，某種程度上定化了明儒靜坐法的形式和心法。在靜坐、調息的過程裡，身體的感性值可被沈澱而至無欲，而氣被持續精鍊至無定向而週身充繞，藉此向上向下突破了「形」、「心」所設的界線。通身和氣周流時，就是即「形」即「氣」即「心」，瞬間完成了身心的轉換，學者也在「身體」中證得「本體」。藉「主靜」工夫，通過「身體」而成就出渾身是道的「自然」之境，這是陳白沙身體觀的基本圖式。 第二型是「良知學型」。王陽明開創出來的這個身體觀類型，無疑是明儒身體觀的最大宗。在「心即理」的理論預設下，「良知學型」的身體觀中，存在著一種「理＝心—意—形」的個人身體結構。這結構表面看似與儒家傳統的「心—氣—形」身體觀原型有所差異，但建立在古典氣化身體的共識上，我們大可將該結構視為「心—氣—形」的心理向描述。這類型最常出現的對應工夫，則是良知教裡強調的意念工夫。陽明這種特意從心理或意識面向，以進行身體思索的進路，在古典身體觀中相當有特色。在個人身體的基礎上，陽明提出了宇宙身體式的「萬物一體」之說，從中認肯了儒者對他人與他物的責任。在「理＝心—意—形」的「身心同一」，以及「萬物一體」的架構下，儒學傳統的「內聖」、「外王」理論，顯得更為細密且穩固。當然，陽明的學問與事功，剛好提供給這套架構最具體的實踐典律。 第三型是王龍溪的「內丹良知學型」身體觀，這類型雖然充滿了丹學隱喻，但當算是「良知學型」的亞種。「內丹良知學型」的身體觀是由兩重身體結構交織而成：一是繼承「良知學型」裡的「理＝心—意—形」結構，從心理意向的「身心一體」，延續了「心要在軀殼裡」的心學身心思考，展示了身體精神化的一面。另一則是龍溪藉助內丹學的資源，通過「心—息—身」的身體結構，顯示良知本體亦可通過調息、靜坐、睡功等工夫隨時呈顯。這種身體常被隱喻為某種丹鼎或風籥，展示了身體物質化的一面。從思想史角度觀察，這反映了良知走向氣化的趨勢。心體、身體、意識、氣在「心即理」中，構成複雜互通的網絡，從中也出現了相應的「一念自反」、「靜坐」和「詠歌法」等工夫。這個架構為「養德」即「養生」、「養生」亦「養德」的觀點，提供了「體驗」的依據。如果說王陽明的「良知學」，是種「道德的意識哲學」（philosophy of consciousness on morality）的話，那麼王龍溪這種身心思考，無寧接近於「道德的身體哲學」（philosophy of body on morality）的立場。 第四型是李卓吾代表的「虛無苦身型」，這是四種類型中最奇特的類型，它算是心學身體觀的變種和補充型。其起源於主體的身體經驗，除了關連於明代儒者對生死問題思考外，可能也接受了佛教的部分教理。在這類型裡，絕少看到身體結構的討論，而只一再強調擁有身體的消極面。身體是各種負面元素的組合，等同於痛苦、黑暗、相當於死亡、解脫無門。這類型的特色，在於將人偶然暫起的無力、無助感，認定為身體全部。由此發展出的「虛無」身體論述，就是「虛無、痛苦＝身體」。由於身體為「虛無」，所以此型工夫無定向而重隨機說法。燕京錦衣獄裡的「工夫」展示中，卓吾解決了「身體」的「痛苦」，證出了「身體」的「虛無」，一夕事畢功成。這類型之於明代儒學身體觀的特殊意義，在於它暫離了傳統理學所討論的理氣關係、心性問題，以至於「本體」、「工夫」，而直接訴諸「身體」的根源問題—生與死。 通過這四種身體觀類型的發掘，讀者當可看到明代儒者經由不同的「工夫」，在「以體驗之」中，建構出各有差異的「身體」觀。這種強烈的體證性格，可謂是明代儒學的重要特色。在心學理論傳統下，即便因為身體經驗和存在體驗的不同，導致這四種身體觀裡身心結構的差異，但與作為對照組的朱子身體觀相較，四者間仍見血緣聯繫之處。 完成這四種明代儒學身體觀「理想類型」的分判後，我們當可確定，從「本體」到「心體」、「身體」，由「體驗」至「實踐」，是條理解明儒之學的關鍵性線索。從光明的瑩朗到黑暗的虛無，從動的生生到靜的肅穆，將這四幕「理想畫卷」（Idealbild）合璧並觀時，它就是全幅的明儒證道神話，不約而同地展露出明代儒者對證悟「本體」的共同渴望。

Based on the researches and the documents relative to Confucianism in the Ming Dynasty, I refer to “ideal type”, “phenomenology of body”, and “archaeology of knowledge” as a theoretical structure, indicating four major types of the concept of body in the Ming Dynasty, which are “Meditation and Nature Type” of Chen Xian-Zhang’s system, “Liang-chih Type” of Wang Yang-Ming’s system, “Nei-dan (inner alchemy) Conscience Type” of Wang Ji’s system, and “Nihility and Painful Body Type” of Li Zhi’s system. “Meditation and Nature Type”: Chen Xian-Zhang demonstrated that body communicates with “Tao”. It’s not only silent, but vital. Under “Tao” Xian-Zhang’s concept of body reveals the ontological structure as Tao–mind–Qi-shape. The order of “Tao” goes with the dignity of body. Xian-Zhang named this mystery “clue” or “clue of the good”, which are the origin and the guideline of morality. Xian-Zhang constructed the Confucian body practice on the basis of Nei-dan Theory, setting up the form and the method of the Ming Dynasty Confucian meditation. In the process of the meditation, and the breath adjustment, the desire is purified, and the body is filled with “Qi”, breaking through the limit set by “shape” and “mind”. At that moment, there is no difference among “shape”, “Qi”, and “mind”, and the transformation between body and mind is immediately completed. The practician also proves “ontology” through “body”. In conclusion, by the means of meditation, Xian-Zhang reached “nature” full of Tao through body practice. “Liang- chih Type”: Wang Yang-Ming invented this type. It is the Ming Dynasty Confucian main concept of body, in which the personal body’s structure as “Lii=mind-consciousness-shape” exists under the hypothesis of “Shin Jyi Lii”. This structure can be regarded as the mental description under the consensus of the classical “Qi” body, even it looks different from the prototype of the traditional Confucian concept of body: “mind-Qi-shape”. The practice always relative to this type is consciousness, which is one of the key idea of the teachings of Liang-chih. The main characteristic of Yang-Ming’s type is specially to approach the body in the aspects of mentality and consciousness. On the basis of personal body, Yang-Ming devised “the unity of all species” vision, which is the type of universal body. From this viewpoint, he affirmed the Confucianists’ responsibility for other people and other things. The mentioned frameworks as “flesh-mind identity” and “the unity of all species” stabilize and detail such traditional Confucian theory as “inner saint” and “outer king”. Yang-Ming’s scholarship and achievement is the obvious canon for this framework. “Nei-Dan (inner alchemy) Conscience Type”: This type can be thought as the subtype of “Liang-chih Type”, even it’s filled with the metaphor of “Dan”. It consists of dual structure of body. One is “Lii= mind-consciousness-shape” originally existing in “Liang-chih Type”, expanding Yang-Ming’s “body-mind” thought (the mind is on the inside of the body) through “flesh-mind identity” of the mental intensions. It reveals the aspect of the spiritualization of body. Another structure: “mind-breath-flesh”, based on “Dan”, supposes that the noumenon of the conscience itself can appear all the time by breath adjustment, meditation, and sleeping practice. Always this type of body is metaphorically considered the three legged vessel of “Dan”, or “phon-yeh“(a type of ancient Chinese flute). This one reveals the aspect of the materialization of body”. From the angle of thoughts history, this type reflects the trend from conscience to “Qi”. Within “Shin Jyi Lii”, mind, body, conscience and “Qi” are interweaved to be the complicated network, and then the according practices such as “Yi Nin Chih Fan”, “meditation”, and “singing” are displayed. This framework con be the fundamental of “experience” for the viewpoint “To preserve health is to preserve virtue”, and vice versa. Wang Ji’s thought is a philosophy of body on morality, while Yang-Ming’s “Liang- chih” is a kind of philosophy of consciousness on morality. “Nihility and Painful Body Type” of Li Zhi: This is the most particular type, which can be regarded as the additional one for the concept of body of “Hsin-shu” (philosophy of mind). It originates from one’s body experience, combining Ming Dynasty Confucianists’ thinking about life and death with part of theory of Buddhism. The type concentrates on body’s dark side rather than its structure. Body, related with pain, darkness, death, and impossibility of being freed, is composed of various negative factors. The interpretation of “nihility, pain=body” was developing by regarding the helplessness which human beings occasionally and temporarily think about as all of body. As body is nil, there is no specific path for the practice of this type. Li Zhi resolved the “pain” of “body”, and also confirmed the “nihility” of “body” through the presentation of “practice” in embroidered-uniformed guard’s prison in Yenching, which was a great achievement. The particular meaning of this type for the Confucian concept of body in Ming Dynasty is a temporal disregard of the relationship between “Lii” and “Qi”, the issue of Hsin Hsing, the noumenon, and the practice in the traditional Neo-Confucianism. On the contrary, it directly touches the core problem: life and death. In this dissertation readers can notice various different concepts of body constructed by the Confucianists in the Ming Dynasty through several “practices” in bodily experience. This evident tendency to experience is the important characteristic of Confucianism in the Ming Dynasty. Under the traditional theory of “hsin”, though distinct body and living experiences lead to different body and mind structure, the mentioned four types of the concept of body still can be connected with each other in contrast with Chu Hsi’s thought. After interpreting these four types of the Confucian concept of body, we confirm that the path from “noumenon” to “mind”, “body”, as well as the one from “experience” to “practice” is the main clues to the thought of the Ming Dynasty Confucianists. The “idealbild” of the above four types of pictures with brightness, darkness, vividness, and quietness is the unabridged myth of witnessing “Tao”, coincidentally revealing the Ming Dynasty Confucianists’ desire to understand the “noumenon”.