女人是花:英語、德語、和斯洛維尼亞語的性別隱喻研究

Abstract

本論文探討在性相關主題的隱喻與轉喻概念化中，根深蒂固且反覆出現的性別再現與偏見，研究重點聚焦於三種印歐語系語言：英語、德語與斯洛維尼亞語。儘管隱喻與性別之間的關係日益受到關注，過去研究大多忽略了隱喻與轉喻如何在語言中形塑人們對親密與禁忌領域的理解。本研究試圖填補此一關鍵空白，分析以下六個核心主題：貞操、月經、乳房、生殖器（陰道與陰莖）、對有多重性伴侶的人的稱謂，以及未婚者的稱謂。此外，既有的隱喻研究很少探討價值涵義如何在如「存在大鏈」（Great Chain of Being, GCB）等本體論階層中運作，而本研究在理論上對此做出重要突破。 本研究採用了兩大分析架構：其一為「普遍與文化特有性別隱喻模型」（Universal and Culture-specific Gender Metaphors, UCGM），用以區分共通與文化特有的隱喻；其二為「存在大鏈」隱喻系統，此系統基於一套上至神、下至物體的等級階序：神 > 人 > 動物 > 物品。本論文聚焦於以下四個研究問題：（1）在針對親密主題所進行的初步訪談研究中，於特定印歐語系語言中出現了哪些性別概念化？（2）在英語、德語與斯洛維尼亞語的大型問卷資料中（n = 600+），出現了哪些性別概念化？這些概念化如何與 UCGM 與 GCB 模型相關聯？（3）斯洛維尼亞語的諺語、詩歌、歌曲與漫畫中反映了哪些性別概念化？這些概念化如何與 UCGM 與 GCB 模型相關聯？（4）綜合研究結果如何增進我們對語言中性別偏見的理解，並促進更有效性別概念化分析模型的發展？ 為了回答上述研究問題，本研究蒐集了以下資料來源：（1）針對印歐語系母語者進行的初步訪談；（2）涵蓋英語、德語與斯洛維尼亞語的大型問卷調查（n = 600+）；（3）斯洛維尼亞語書面文本，包括三本諺語合集、兩本法蘭茲·普列舍仁（France Prešeren）詩集、20首流行歌曲與米奇·穆斯特（Miki Muster）共計41本漫畫中的16本。 本研究在幾方面具有重要貢獻。首先，研究提供了一份罕見且全面的跨語言與多模態語料資料，尤其突顯在隱喻研究中長期被忽視的斯洛維尼亞語。從訪談與問卷中得出以下幾點主要發現：（1）在英語、德語與斯洛維尼亞語中，女性的貞操普遍受到理想化，隱喻為「女性是神聖的存在」（WOMEN ARE DIVINE BEINGS），而男性則被貶低，例如德語中使用「Jungfrau」（意為「年輕女子」）同時指涉男性與女性處男處女，使得男性女性化；（2）英語、德語與斯洛維尼亞語中，月經常被隱喻為疾病（MENSTRUATION IS DISEASE），在存在大鏈中被置於較低層級；德語如「Erdbeerwoche」（草莓週）等委婉語提供了較中性的替代方式；（3）女性乳房在三語中常被隱喻為功能性物品（FEMALE BREASTS ARE (FUNCTIONABLE) OBJECTS），而男性的乳房用語則罕見，甚至被嘲諷為「moobs」；（4）陰道的隱喻呈現柔軟與被動，如「陰道是柔軟的小動物」（VAGINA IS A SMALL AND SOFT ANIMAL），陰莖則常被隱喻為具有攻擊性的動物（PENIS IS A DANGEROUS ANIMAL），進一步鞏固男性主導性；（5）擁有多重性伴侶的女性在三語中皆被非人化，如「女性是二手物品」（WOMEN ARE SECOND-HAND OBJECTS），而男性則獲得讚賞（如「男性是很酷的人類」、「男性是玩家」）；（6）未婚女性在三語中皆帶有貶義隱喻，如英語的「女性是老處女」（WOMEN ARE SPINSTERS）、德語與斯洛維尼亞語中的「女性是老處女」（WOMEN ARE OLD VIRGINS），而男性則被賦予中性或正面詞彙，如「男性是單身漢」（MEN ARE BACHELORS）。儘管男女皆可能被物化，只有女性被一貫性地貶低，例如「女性是剩菜」（WOMEN ARE LEFTOVERS）對比「男性是鑽石」（MEN ARE DIAMONDS）。 在斯洛維尼亞語書面資料（諺語、詩歌、歌曲與漫畫）中，一項關鍵發現是：只有女性被持續地置於存在大鏈的最底層，並透過隱喻如「女性是花朵」（WOMEN ARE FLOWERS）或「女性是物品」（WOMEN ARE OBJECTS）來描繪。特別值得注意的是，1970 年代的斯洛維尼亞漫畫開始呈現女性有發聲權與專業角色，但男性話語中對女性的物化現象依然存在。 本論文最具代表性的理論貢獻之一是提出了「主體性與價值涵義矩陣」（Great Matrix of Agency and Connotation, GMAC），作為對「存在大鏈」模型的延伸，納入了「主體性」（能動性與被動性）與「價值涵義」（正面與負面）的維度。例如，儘管未婚男性（如「未婚男性是鑽石」）與未婚女性（如「未婚女性是剩菜」）皆被隱喻為物品，唯有女性因隱喻所帶來的負面價值涵義而系統性地被貶低。此外，透過 UCGM 模型，本研究證實了以生物意象為基礎的隱喻（如「女性是動物」、「男性是動物」）具有高度普遍性，在英語、德語與斯洛維尼亞語中皆有出現；相對地，其他隱喻則展現出明顯的文化特殊性，例如早期斯洛維尼亞漫畫中出現的「女性是紀念品」（WOMEN ARE SOUVENIRS），以及 1970 年代斯洛維尼亞女性社會地位逐漸提升時期出現的「女性是戰士」（WOMEN ARE WARRIORS）。 本論文藉由揭示隱喻與轉喻如何深層地編碼性別偏見，對隱喻理論、性別與語言，以及以斯洛維尼亞語為代表的弱勢語言跨文化研究做出了重要貢獻。本研究呼籲學術界與社會大眾更加關注隱喻在日常語言中如何形塑並延續性別階層的機制。

This dissertation investigates deeply ingrained and recurring gendered representations and biases in the metaphorical and metonymical conceptualizations of sexuality-related topics, with a primary focus on three Indo-European languages: English, German, and Slovene. Despite increasing interest in metaphor and gender, prior research has largely overlooked how metaphor and metonymy fundamentally shape understandings of intimate and taboo domains across languages. This research addresses this critical gap by analyzing six key areas: virginity, menstruation, breasts, genitalia (vagina and penis), terms for individuals with multiple sexual partners, and terms for unmarried individuals. Moreover, existing metaphor research rarely accounts for how connotation interacts within ontological hierarchies like the Great Chain of Being (GCB) metaphor system. This study significantly advances that theoretical limitation. The study applies two frameworks: the Universal and Culture-specific Gender Metaphors (UCGM) model, which distinguishes shared and culture-bound metaphors; and the Great Chain of Being metaphor system, a hierarchy of God > human > animal > object. The study consists of four research questions: 1) What gendered conceptualizations emerge from a pilot interview study of intimate topics across selected Indo-European languages? 2) What gendered conceptualizations appear in large-scale questionnaire data from English, German, and Slovene (n = 600+), and how do they relate to the UCGM and GCB models? 3) What gendered conceptualizations are reflected in Slovene proverbs, poetry, songs, and comics, and how do they relate to the UCGM and GCB models? 4) How do the combined findings enhance our understanding of gender bias in language and contribute to the development of a more effective model for analyzing gendered conceptualizations? To answer the above research questions, we use the following data: (1) a pilot interview study with Indo-European speakers, (2) a large-scale questionnaire (n = 600+) across English, German, and Slovene, and (3) Slovene written sources: proverbs (3 collections), poetry (2 poem collections by France Prešeren), 20 popular songs, and 16 comic books by Miki Muster (from 41 analyzed in total). This research has several significant contributions. Empirically, this work contributes a rare and comprehensive cross-linguistic and multimodal dataset, with Slovene as an underrepresented language in metaphor studies. Major and illuminating findings from the interviews and the questionnaires include: 1) Virginity is in English, German, and Slovene strongly idealized for women through the metaphor WOMEN ARE DIVINE BEINGS and devalued for men, e.g., in German YOUNG WOMEN STAND FOR VIRGIN MEN (the term Jungfrau means ‘young woman’ to refer to both male and female virgins, feminizing men), 2) Menstruation is in English, German, and Slovene metaphorically framed as illness (MENSTRUATION IS DISEASE), positioning it low on the Great Chain of Being. Euphemisms in German (e.g., Erdbeerwoche, ‘strawberry week’) offer more neutral alternatives, 3) Female breasts are in English, German, and Slovene frequently objectified through metaphors like FEMALE BREASTS ARE (FUNCTIONABLE) OBJECTS, while expressions for male breasts are rare and often mocked, using the term moobs, 4) Vagina metaphors in English, German, and Slovene suggest softness and passivity (e.g., VAGINA IS A SMALL AND SOFT ANIMAL); penis metaphors imply aggression (e.g., PENIS A IS DANGEROUS ANIMAL), reinforcing male dominance, 5) Women with multiple partners are in English, German, and Slovene dehumanized through metaphors WOMEN ARE SECOND-HAND OBJECTS, while men are praised (e.g., MEN ARE COOL HUMANS, MEN ARE PLAYERS); 6) Unmarried women are in English, German, and Slovene labeled through negative metaphors, WOMEN ARE SPINSTERS in English, and WOMEN ARE OLD VIRGINS in German and Slovene, while men receive positive or neutral terms (e.g., MEN ARE BACHELORS). Though both may be objectified, only women are consistently devalued (e.g., WOMEN ARE LEFTOVERS vs. MEN ARE DIAMONDS). A crucial finding in Slovene written sources (proverbs, poetry, songs, and comics) is that only women are consistently placed at the bottom of the Great Chain of Being through the metaphors WOMEN ARE FLOWERS or WOMEN ARE OBJECTS. Significantly, Slovene comics from the 1970s show women gaining voice and professional roles, yet objectification persists in male discourse toward women. A landmark theoretical contribution of this dissertation, based on the above findings, is the Great Matrix of Agency and Connotation (GMAC), which extends the Great Chain of Being by adding agency (active vs. passive) and connotation (positive vs. negative). For instance, both unmarried men (e.g., UNMARRIED MEN ARE DIAMONDS) and women (e.g., UNMARRIED WOMEN ARE LEFTOVERS) are metaphorically objectified, but only women are systematically devalued due to negative connotations related to the metaphors for unmarried women. Furthermore, using the UCGM model, the study confirms that metaphors based on biological imagery (e.g., WOMEN ARE ANIMALS, MEN ARE ANIMALS) tend to be broadly universal and were found in English, German, and Slovene. In contrast, other metaphors show striking cultural specificity; for example, WOMEN ARE SOUVENIRS appeared in early Slovene comics, while WOMEN ARE WARRIORS emerged around the 1970s, a period when women in Slovenia began to achieve greater social status. By revealing how metaphor and metonymy encode deeply entrenched gender bias, this dissertation significantly contributes to metaphor theory, gender and language, and cross-cultural research in less-studied languages, like Slovene. It calls for more critical awareness of the metaphor’s role in shaping and perpetuating gender hierarchies in everyday language.